Index

  1. Introduction
  2. Mycorrhizas of Australian Plants
    1. Ferns
    2. Gymnosperms
    3. Angiosperms - Dicotyledons
    4. Angiosperms - Monocotyledons
  3. Discussion
    1. VAM families
    2. ECM families
    3. Orchids
    4. Ericoid Mycorrhizas
    5. Thysanotus
    6. Conclusions
  4. Help Provide Information

Version 2.0 © Mark Brundrett 2008

MYCORRHIZAL ASSOCIATIONS: The Web Resource

Section 8. MYCORRHIZAL ASSOCIATIONS OF AUSTRALIAN PLANTS

 

A. Introduction

This section summarises knowledge of mycorrhizal associations of Australian plant families and genera in the table below. This information can be used to help restore disturbed habitats and to understand interactions between plants, fungi and animals, as well as nutrient cycling in natural ecosystems. More information on nonmycorrhizal plants is provided in Section 6. Definitions used to define arbuscular mycorrhizas (VAM) and ectomycorrhizas (ECM) follow section 1. However, papers do not always state that structures which define associations were observed. Some plants were reported to be mycorrhizal in some studies, but not others. These may be facultatively mycorrhizal plants, inadequate samples, or cases where mycorrhizal definitions were not applied.

 

B. Mycorrhizas and Roots of Australian Plants

Table background colours separate mycorrhizal categories. Plant genera with more than one category are highlighted. Results are summarised in the following section. Generic names follow the original publications in most cases, but family names have been updated.

Family Species Form Mycorrhiza References
˙
I. FERNS & FERN ALLIES (see Section 2 also)
Aspleniaceae Asplenium ferns VAM / NM most samples NM - Cooper 1976 (NZ), VAM & NM - Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii).
Blechnaceae Blechnum ferns VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ), Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii).
Cyatheaceae Cyathea tree ferns VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ), Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii).
Dennstaedtiaceae Hypolepis (NZ), Pteridium fern VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ), Brockhoff & Allaway 1988, Logan et al. 1989. NM - Sward 1978
Dicksoniaceae Dicksonia tree fern VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ)
Dryopteridaceae Polystichum, Rumohra ferns VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ).
Gleicheniaceae Gleichenia ferns VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ).
Hymenophyllaceae Hymenophyllum, Trichomanes filmy ferns VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ).
Isoetaceae Isoetes (submerged aquatic plants) fern ally VAM Clayton & Bagyaraj 1984 (NZ). See Section 2.
Lindsaeaceae Lindsaea fern VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ), Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii), Brundrett et al. 1995.
Lycopodiaceae Lycopodium, Phylloglossum fern ally VAM, NM Lycopodium adult VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ), NM - Johnston & Ryan 2000. Phylloglossum Hyphal coils in gametophyte MH VAM? - Holloway 1935 (NZ).
Nephrolepidaceae (=Lomariopsidaceae) Arthropteris (NZ) Nephrolepis fern VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ) Nephrolepis epiphyte - Reddell et al. 1996
Osmondaceae Todea ferns VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ)
Polypodiaceae (Grammitidaceae) Drynaria, Grammitis, Pyrrosia fernsVAM (NM) Cooper 1976 (NZ). Drynaria NM on rock - Brundrett et al. 1995.
Psilotaceae Tmesipteris (NZ), Psilotum lower ferns VAM,
MH VAM
Tmesipteris Sporophyte VAM - Copper 1976 (NZ). Psilotum soporophyte VAM - M. Brundrett (unpublished), Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii). See Section 2.
Pteridaceae (inc. Adiantaceae, Hemionitidaceae, Sinopteridaceae) Adiantum, Cheilanthes, Pellaea, Platyzoma, Pteris ferns VAM (NM) Cooper 1976 (NZ), Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii), Platyzoma NM - Brundrett et al. 1995.
Schizaeaceae Schizaea ferns VAM Copper 1976 (NZ), Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii), Brundrett et al. 1995
Selaginellaceae Selaginella fern ally NM / VAM Sward 1978. VAM also reported - see Section 2.
Thelypteridaceae Thelypteris fern VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ).
Woodsiaceae (Athyriaceae) Cystopteris fern VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ).
II. GYMNOSPERMS (see Section 2 also)
Araucariaceae Agathis, Aracauria, Phyllocladus, Wollemia trees VAM Beaded VAM roots - Baylis et al. 1963 (NZ), Bevege 1968 (7 spp.), McGee et al. 1999. Wollemia occasional ECM - McGee et al. 1999.
Cupressaceae Callitris trees VAM Bevege 1968,Reddell & Milnes 1992, Pattinson et al. 2004.
Podocarpaceae Dacrycarpus, Dacrydium, Podocarpus, (Prumnopitys) trees, shrub VAM Bevege 1968 (3 spp.), Reddell et al. 1996. NZ refs - Baylis et al. 1963, Johnson 1977, Hurst et al. 2002, Russell et al. 2002. VAM in beaded roots
Zamiaceae Lepidozamia, Macrozamia (Cycads) shrubs, trees VAM Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell et al. 1996.
These also have coralloid N2 fixing roots - Lamont 1982, Grove et al. 1980.
III. ANGIOSPERMS - DICOTYLEDONS
Aizoaceae Carpobrotus, Sesuvium, Trianthema herbs NM Brockhoff & Allaway 1988, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett et al. 1995.
Amaranthaceae Alternanthera, Gomphrena, Ptilotus herbs NM Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, O'Connor et al. 2001
Anacardiaceae Buchanania tree VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Annonaceae Melodorum, Polyalthia, Xylopia vine, trees VAM Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Aciphylla, Actinotis, Eryngium, Platysace, Hydrocotyle, Lilaeopsis, Oreomyrrhis, Trachymene, Xanthosia herbs VAM Johnson 1977 (NZ), Sward 1978, Clayton & Bagyaraj 1984 (NZ), Peterson et al. 1985, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Bellgard 1991, Johnson & Ryan 2000, O'Connor et al. 2001,
Warcup (1980) and Bellgard (1991) report ECM-like association in Platysace.
Apocynaceae
(Asclepiadaceae)
Alyxia, Cynanchum, Ichnocarpus, Wrightia herb, shrub, vine, trees VAM Koske 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Gehring & Connell 2006.
Apodanthaceae (Rafflesiaceae) Pilostyles internal parasite NM Parasitic Plants lacking roots
Araliaceae Polyscias, Schefflera trees VAM (NM) Reddell et al. 1996 (Schefflera NM)
Asteraceae Brachycome, Calocephalus, Calotis, Celmisia, Cephalipterum, Chthonocephalus, Cotula, Craspedia, Chrysanthemoides, Gnephosis, Helichrysum, Helipterum, Leucochrysum, Millotia, Olearia, Othonna, Polycalymma, Rhodanthe, Senecio, Waitzia, Vittadinia, herbs, shrubs VAM Sward 1978, Warcup & McGee 1983, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Koske et al. 1992, Johnson & Ryan 2000, O'Connor et al. 2001. Warcup & McGee 1983 and Kope & Warcup 1986 - ECM-like asociation in Angianthus, Helichrysum, Helipterum, Podolepis, Waitzia
Balanophoraceae
Parasitic Plants
Balanophora parasite NM Family of obligate parasites lacking roots - Heywood et al. 1996
Bignoniaceae Deplanchea tree VAM Reddell et al. 1996
Boraginaceae Argusia, Omphalalappula, Trichodesma shrub, herbs VAM (NM) Peterson et al. 1985, O'Connor et al. 2001
Brassicaceae

(Cruciferae)
*Cakile, Blennodium, Lepidium, *Sisymbrium (*weeds) herbs NM (VAM) Peterson et al. 1985, O'Connor et al. 2001.
Lepidium VAM or NM - Peterson et al. 1985, Koske et al. 1992. Consistently NM family - DeMars & Boerner 1996.
Burseraceae Canarium tree VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Campanulaceae
(Lobeliaceae)
Lobelia herbs VAM VAM - Warcup 1988, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Koske et al. 1992. ECM-like associations also - Warcup 1988
Cleomaceae (Capparaceae) Cleome herb NM Brundrett et al. 1995
Caryophyllaceae Calobanthus shrubs VAM Alpine plants - Johnson & Ryan 2000
Casuarinaceae

(Nitrogen fixing)
Allocasuarina, Casuarina trees
shrubs
ECM/ VAM Warcup 1980, Reddell et al. 1986, Thoen et al. 1990, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, N fixing nodules & cluster roots.
Casuarina trees VAM (ECM) Predominantly VAM - Khan 1993, Koske et al. 1992, Dell et al. 1994
Gymnostoma tree VAM VAM in beaded roots - Duhoux et al. 2001
Celastraceae
(inc. Stackhousiaceae)
Hippocratea, Lophopetalum, Stackhousia, Tripterococcus tree,
herbs
VAM Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996
Chenopodiaceae Atriplex, Enchyleana, Rhagodia, Salsola, Sclerolaena shrubs NM (AM) Logan et al. 1989, Koske et al. 1992, O'Connor et al. 2001, Asghari et al. 2005 (low hyphal colonisation, arbuscules may be present)
Chrysobalanaceae Maranthes tree VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Clusiaceae Calophyllum, Garcina trees VAM Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Gehring & Connell 2006
Cochlospermaceae
(Bixaceae)
Cochlospermum tree VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Combretaceae Terminalia trees VAM Koske 1992, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995
Convolvulaceae Calystegia, Convolvulus, Evolvulus, Ipomoea, Polymeria vines VAM Logan et al. 1989, Koske et al. 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, O'Connor et al. 2001 (Ipomoea normally VAM)
Cucurbitaceae Citrullus (weed) herbs VAM O'Connor et al. 2001
Cunoniaceae Ceratopetalum trees VAM Sheathing association with no Hartig net considered to be a type of ECM - McGee & Furby 1992., Gehring & Connell 2006
Dilleniaceae Dillenia, Hibbertia, Pachynema shrubs, Tree VAM Sward 1978, Brockhoff & Allaway 1988, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Bellgard 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996
Droseraceae
Carnivorous Plants
Drosera (Sundews),
Aldrovanda (Waterwheel Plant)
herbs,
climbers,
aquatic plant
NM Consistently NM - McGee 1986, Sward 1978, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995. Aldrovanda has no roots at maturity - Lowrie 1998. See NM plants section.
Ebenaceae Diospyros tree VAM Reddell et al. 1996
Elaeocarpaceae
(Tremandraceae)
Elaeocarpus, Tetratheca tree, shrub VAM Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell et al 1996
Ericaceae

(Inc. Epacridaceae)
Acrotriche, Andersonia, Astroloma, Brachyloma, Conostephium, Dracophyllum, Epacris, Leucopogon, Lissanthe, Lysinema, Melichrus, Monotoca, Needhamiella, Oligarrhena, Pentachondra, Richea, Rupicola, Sphenotoma, Sprengelia, Styphelia, Trochocarpa, Woollsia shrubs Ericoid Typical ericoid mycorrhizal associations were observed in Australian Ericaceae by Sward 1978, Reed 1987, Bellgard 1991, Hutton et al. 1994, McLean & Lawrie 1996, Cairney & Ashford 2002 and also by McNabb 1961 in New Zealand.Bellgard 1991 reported occasional VAM in epacrids. Styphelia reverted to VAM in Hawaii - Koske et al. 1992.
Euphorbaceae S.S. Euphorbia, Ricinocarpus (see Picrodendraceae and Phyllanthaceae also) herbs VAM Brockhoff & Allaway 1988, Peterson et al. 1985, O'Connor et al. 2001
Fabaceae I: Ceasalpinoidea (Caesalpiniaceae) Cassia, Erythrophleum, Senna, Labichea shrubs
trees
VAM Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995. N fixing nodules - Lamont 1982.
Fabaceae II: Subfamily Mimosoidea (Mimosaceae) Acacia (Wattles) shrubs ECM/ VAM Warcup 1980, McGee 1986, Reddell & Warren 1987, Bellgard 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995. See note on Acacia below. N2 fixing nodules.
Acacia shrubs VAM Sward 1978, McGee 1986, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995. N2 fixing nodules.
Fabaceae III: Subfamily Papilionoidea (Papilionaceae) Alysicarpus, Bossiaea, Cajanus, Crotalaria, Cullen, Daviesia, Desmodium, Dillwynia, Galactia, Gompholobium, Hardenbergia, Hovea, Indigofera, Jacksonia, Kennedia, Swainsona, Templetonia, Tephrosia, Uraria shrubs
herbs
VAM Sward 1978, Brockhoff & Allaway 1988, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Bellgard 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, O'Connor et al. 2001. N2 fixing nodules - Lamont 1982
Viminaria shrubs VAM
cluster roots Brundrett & Abbott 1991. See Fabaceae roots below.
Daviesia, Kennedia shrubs
climbers
NM Cluster roots Brundrett & Abbott 1991. See Fabaceae roots below.
Brachysema, Burtonia, Chorizema, Daviesia, Dillwynia, Eutaxia, Gastrolobium, Gompholobium, Hardenbergia, Jacksonia, Mirbelia, Oxylobium, Platylobium, Pultenaea, Viminaria shrubs ECM/
VAM
ECM and VAM in roots - Warcup 1980, Lamont et al. 1985, Kope & Warcup 1986, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Bellgard 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995
Frankeniaceae Frankenia shrub NM? Sparse colonisation, arbuscules not seen - O'Connor et al. 2001. (More work needed)
Geraniaceae Erodium (weed), Pelargonium herbs VAM Logan et al. 1989, O'Connor et al. 2001
Goodeniaceae Calogyne, Dampiera, Goodenia, Lechenaultia, Scaevola herbs, shrubs VAM VAM - Peterson et al. 1985, Sward 1987, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Koske et al. 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, O'Connor et al. 2001. ECM-like association also - Warcup 1980, Bellgard 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992
Haloragaceae Dryland plant: Glischrocaryon
Submerged aquatic: Myriophyllum
herbs VAM McGee 1986
Clayton & Bagyaraj 1984 (NZ)
Icacinaceae Apodytes tree VAM Gehring & Connell 2006
Lamiaceae Epimeredi, Hemigenia, Hyptis, Pityrodia (Chloanthaceae), Prosanthera, Westringia herbs, shrubs VAM McGee 1986, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995
Lauraceae Cryptocarya, Beilschmiedia, Litsea trees VAM Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Gehring 2003, Gehring & Connell 2006
Cassytha (Dodder) vine NM Haustorial parasites without roots.
Lecythidaceae Planchonia tree VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Lentibulariaceae
Carnivorous Plants
Utricularia (bladderworts) herbs NM Aquatic and semi-aquatic carnivorous plants with traps instead of roots - Lowrie 1998.
Loganiaceae Mitrasacme, Strychnos herb,
tree
VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Loranthaceae
Parasitic Plants
Amyema, Decaisnina, Dendrophthoe, Lysiana (Mistletoes)
Nuytsia
(Christmas Tree)
epiphytes, tree NM Parasitic epiphytes attached to branches by haustoria. Nuytsia is a tree with root haustoria. Nuytsia roots NM - Brundrett & Abbott 1991. See photos of these plants in Section 6.
Malvaceae Albutilon, Hibiscus, Malvastrum, Sida herbs, shrubs VAM (NM) Peterson et al. 1985, Brundrett et al. 1995, O'Connor et al. 2001 (some samples NM)
Melastomataceae Melastoma shrub VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Meliaceae Owenia tree VAM/ ECM Brundrett et al. 1995
Menispermaceae Stephania climber VAM Logan et al. 1989
Menyanthaceae Nymphoides aquatic herb VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Molluginaceae Glinus herb NM Brundrett et al. 1995
Monimiaceae Doryphora, Wilkiea tree VAM Reddell et al. 1996, Gehring & Connell 2006
Moraceae Ficus trees VAM (NM) Brundrett et al. 1995, (NM - Reddell et al. 1996). Strangler figs Mexico have VAM - Guevara & López 2007.
Myoporaceae Eremophila shrubs VAM O'Connor et al. 2001
Myrsinaceae Rapanea tree VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Myrtaceae Allosyncarpia, Agonis, Angophora, Backhousia, Asteromyrtus, Callistemon, Calytrix, Corymbia, Eucalyptus, Kunzea, Leptospermum, Lophostemon, Melaleuca, Syzygium (Tristania, Tristaniopsis) trees,
shrubs
ECM/
(VAM)
Chilvers & Pryor 1965, Chilvers 1973, Lamont 1979, Warcup 1980, McGee 1986, Sward 1987, Bellgard 1991, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Howard et al. 2000. See Myrtaceae below. Tristania in Brunei - Moyersoen et al. 2001. Tristaniopsis New Caledonia - Perrier et al. 2006.
Agonis, Leptospermum, Melaleuca, Pericalymma shrubs,
trees
VAM/
ECM
Dual associations - Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Khan 1993, Pattinson et al. 2004. See Myrtaceae below.
Acmena, Asteromyrtus, Calytrix, Baeckea, Hypocalymma, Metrosideros (NZ), Rhodomyrtus, Syzygium, Verticordia, Xanthostemon shrubs,
trees
VAM VAM only - McGee 1986, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, McKenzie et al. 1999 (Metrosideros - NZ), Gehring 2003, Gehring & Connell 2006.
Nothofagaceae
(Fagaceae S. L.)
Nothofagus trees ECM Warcup 1980, McKenzie et al. 2000 (NZ), Perrier et al. 2006 (New Caledonia)
Nyctaginaceae Pisonia tree ECM Ashford & Allaway 1982, Chambers et al. 2005. Most other members of this family are NM.
Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea (Waterlily) herb VAM Aquatic plant - Brundrett et al. 1995, Khan & Belik 1995
Ochnaceae Brackenridgea tree NM Gehring & Connell 2006
Oleaceae Chionanthus tree VAM Reddell et al. 1996
Onagraceae Epilobium, Ludwigia herb VAM Johnston & Ryan 2000 (Epilobium alpine), Aquatic Ludwigia VAM or NM - Brundrett et al. 1995
Picrodendraceae
(Euphorbiaceae S. L.)
Petalostigma shrub VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Phyllanthaceae
(Euphorbiaceae S. L.)
Shrubs: Phyllanthus, Sebastiania
Tropical trees: Actephila, Antidesmia, Baloghia, Rockinhamia
trees,
shrubs
VAM Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, O'Connor et al. 2001. Some tropical trees NM: Gehring & Connell 2006
Ampera, Poranthera shrubs ECM/ VAM Dual associations - Warcup 1980, Kope & Warcup 1986, Bellgard 1991
Pittosporaceae Billardiera, Pittosporum, Sollya climbers VAM Johnson 1977 (NZ), Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell et al. 1996
Plantaginaceae Plantago herb VAM O'Connor et al. 2001
Polygalaceae Comesperma, Polygala shrubs VAM Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995
Polygonaceae Persicaria herbs NM Considered to be a NM family. NM - Brundrett et al. 1995
Portulacaceae Calandrinia, Portulaca herbs NM McGee 1986, Brundrett et al. 1995, Dhillion et al. 1995 (Chile), O'Connor et al. 2001
Proteaceae

Cluster roots
Adenanthos, Banksia, Cardwellia, Conospermum, Darlingia, Dryandra, Grevillea, Hakea, Isopogon, Lomatia, Orites, Placospermum, Stenocarpus, Stirlingia, Synaphea, Telopea, Xylomelum shrubs
trees
NM Roots consistantly NM (lack arbuscules) - McGee 1986, Sward 1987, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Pattinson & McGee 2004, Gehring & Connell 2006. Conospermum, Hakea, Telopea have occasional colonisation of root - Bellgard 1991, Boulet & Lambers 2005.
See Nonmycorrhizal Plants page.
Ranunculaceae Clematis, Ranunculus climber, herbs VAM Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995, Johnston & Ryan 2000,Ranuculus aquatic - Clayton & Bagyaraj 1984 (NZ)
Rhamnaceae Cryptandra, Pomaderris, Spyridium, Trymalium shrubs ECM/ VAM Warcup 1980, McGee 1986, Brundrett & Abbott 1991
Alphitonia, Cryptandra, Spyridium shrubs,
tree
VAM McGee 1986, Reddell & Milnes 1992
Rhizophoraceae Carallia tree VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Rubiaceae Aidia, Borreria, Canthium, Gardenia, Ixora, Opercularia, Pogonobolus, Pomax, Psychotria, Randia, Timonius shrubs,
trees
VAM Brockhoff & Allaway 1988, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996. Randia listed as NM in Gehring & Connell 2006, but is VAM in Reddell et al. 1996. Ixora has ECM-like association without Hartig net - Reddell et al. 1996.
Rutaceae Achronichia, Boronia, Correa, Euodia, Flindersia, Glycosmis, Halfordia, Phebalium, Philotheca (Eriostemon) shrubs, trees VAM Bevege 1968, McGee 1986, Sward 1987, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Bellgard 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Gehring 2003, Gehring & Connell 2006
Santalaceae

Hemiparasites
Exocarpus, Leptomeria, Santalum trees VAM / NM? Santalum VAM or NM in Hawaii - Koske et al. 1992. Parasitic plants with root haustoria - Lamont 1982.
Sapindaceae Dodonaea, Ellatostachys, Castanospora, Ganophyllum, Mischocarpus, Sarcopteryx trees VAM (NM) VAM - Koske et al. 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Pattinson et al. 2004. NM or VAM - Gehring & Connell 2006
Sapotaceae Castanospermum, Chrysophyllum, Planchonella trees VAM Brundrett et al. 1995, Abu-Zeyad et al. 1999, Reddell et al. 1996, Gehring & Connell 2006
Scrophulariaceae
Hemiparasites
Buchnera, Parentucellia (weed) Striga (Orobanchaceae) herbs NM Root hemi-parasites NM - Brundrett et al. 1995, Brundrett unpublished.
Euphrasia, Glossostigma, Limosella herbs VAM Aquatic Glossostigma spp. - Clayton & Bagyaraj 1984 (NZ). Euphrasia - Johnson & Ryan 2000 (Alpine).
Solanaceae Physalis, Solanum, Nicotiana herbs VAM Reddell & Milnes 1992, O'Connor et al. 2001
Sterculiaceae Argyrodendron, Brachychiton, Franciscodendron, Lasiopetalum, Melochia, Thomasia, Waltheria shrubs,
trees
VAM Brundrett & Abbott 1991 (beaded roots), Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Gehring & Connell 2006. Lasiopetalum, Thomasia ECM-like association - Warcup 1980.
Stylidiaceae Stylidium

(Triggerplants)
herbs VAM VAM in very fine lateral roots - Warcup 1980, Kope & Warcup 1986, Brundrett & Abbott 1991. ECM-like association also without Hartig net - Warcup 1980, Kope & Warcup 1986.
Tiliaceae Triumfetta shrub VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Thymelaeaceae Pimelea, Thecanthes shrubs VAM McGee 1986, Sward 1987, Bellgard 1991, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995
Ulmaceae Celtis tree VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Verbenaceae Clerodendrum, Gmelina, Pityrodia shrub
tree
herb
VAM Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995
Violaceae Hybanthus herb VAM McGee 1986, Brundrett et al. 1995
Vitaceae Ampelocissus, Cayratia, Cissus climbers VAM Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996
Zygophyllaceae Tribulus, Zygophyllum herbs, shrub NM Peterson et al. 1985, Koske et al. 1992, O'Connor et al. 2001
IV. ANGIOSPERMS - MONOCOTYLEDONS
Amaryllidaceae Crinum herb VAM Brundrett & Abbott 1991
Araceae Amorphophallus herb VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Epipremnum climber NM (epiphyte) Brundrett et al. 1995
Arecaceae Calamus, Carpenteria, Livistona, Normanbya (palms) trees, climbers VAM Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996
Asphodelaceae Bulbine herbs VAM McGee 1986, O'Connor et al. 2001
Asteliaceae Astelia herb VAM Johnson 1977 (NZ)
Burmanniaceae Thismia herb MH VAM hyphal coils in saprophytic plant without chlorophyll - McLennan 1958.
Centrolepidaceae Centrolepis herb NM Sward 1987
Colchicaceae Burchardia, Wurmbea herbs VAM Brundrett & Abbott 1991
Commelinaceae Cartonema, Commelina, Murdannia herbs NM (VAM) NM - Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett et al. 1995. see NM plants
Cyperaceae

Dauciform or Sand Binding Roots
Arthrostylis, Bulbostylis, Carex, Cyperus, Eleocharis, Fimbristylis, Rhynchospora, Scleria, etc. sedges NM NM only - Logan et al. 1989, Bellgard 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995. Sand binding roots - Pate & Dixon 1996.
Caustis, Isolepis, Gahnia, Lepidosperma, Tetraria sedges NM (VAM) VAM present in early winter only - Lamont 1982, Meney et al. 1993, Gahnia VAM in Hawaii - Koske et al. 1992. Lepidosperma VAM in New Caledonia - Perrier et al. 2006. Endophytic associations? - see NM plants section.
Dasypogonaceae Kingia shrub NM NM with long root hairs - Brundrett & Abbott 1991
Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea vine VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Eriocaulaceae Eriocaulon herb VAM / NM Aquatic plant. VAM - Khan & Belik 1995, Brundrett et al. 1995. NM - Ragupathy & Mahadevan 1993 (India).
Flagellariaceae Flagellaria vine VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Haemodoraceae
Sand Binding Roots
Anigozanthos, Conostylis, Haemodorum herbs NM Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995. Sand binding roots with very long root hairs - Pate & Dixon 1996.
Hemerocallidaceae Agrostocrinum, Dianella, Tricoryne
(formerly in Anthericaceae & Lomandraceae)
herbs VAM Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Dianella VAM in Hawaii - Koske et al. 1992
Juncaceae Juncus, Luzula rushes NM (VAM) Family of typically NM plants Nm- Sward 1987. Alpine Luzula sp. 0-61% VAM - Johnston & Ryan 2000. Some have root clusters.
Juncaginaceae Triglochin herbs NM Family of typically NM plants. NM- Belik & Khan 1993, also Fontenla et al. 2001 (Argentina), Hildebrandt et al. 2001 (Europe).
Iridaceae Patersonia herbs VAM Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995
Laxmaniaceae Chamaescilla, Laxmannia, Sowerbaea
(formerly in Anthericaceae & Lomandraceae)
herbs VAM Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995.
Lomandra herbs NM NM - McGee 1986, Bellgard 1991. VAM - Logan et al. 1989.
Thysanotus herbs Other Unique sub-epidermal association - McGee 1988, Brundrett & Abbott 1991.
Najadaceae
(Hydrocharitaceae)
Najas aquatic herb NM (VAM) Aquatic plants. Brundrett et al. 1995. VAM also - Khan & Belik 1995
Orchidaceae

Orchids
Acianthus, Caladenia, Calochilus, Corybas, Cryptostylis, Dendrobium*, Diuris, Drakaea, Elythranthera, Epiblema, Eriochilus, Geodorum, Leporella, Lyperanthus, Microtis, Paracaleana, Prasophyllum, Pterostylis, Spiculaea, Thelymitra herbs,
*epiphytes
Orchid Reviews: Brundrett 2007, Dearnaley 2007.
Ramsay et al. (1986) found orchid mycorrhizas in all 144 temperate WA taxa examined. Abdul Karim (2004) observed mycorrhizas in all 12 tropical WA orchids examined.
Aphyllorchis, Didymoplexis, Dipodium, Epipogium, Erythrorchis, Gastrodia, Pseudovanilla, Rhizanthella herbs MH Orchid Mursidawati 2003, See Batty et al. 2002 for other references. Jones 2006 lists achlorophyllous Australian orchids.
Pandanaceae Pandanus (Pandans, Screwpines) shrubs, trees VAM (NM) VAM - Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995. NM Great Barrier Reef and Hawaii - Peterson et al. 1985, Koske et al. 1992.
Philydraceae Philydrella, Philydrum herbs VAM Brundrett et al. 1995, Brundrett unpublished
Poaceae
(Graminae)
Alloteropsis, Bambusa, Brachiaria, Capillipedium, Chionachne, Danthonia, Digitaria, Ectrosia, Eragrostis, Eriachne, Festuca, Heteropogon, Imperata, Micraira, Mniesithea, Panicum, Paspalum, Poa, Plectrachne, Schizachyrium, Setaria, Sorghum, Spinifex, Tetrarrhena, Themeda, Triodia, Triraphis, Zoysia grasses VAM Usually low levels of colonisation and some nonmycorrhizal samples -
Crush 1973 (NZ), McGee 1986, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Johnson & Ryan 2000, O'Connor et al. 2001.
Potamogetonaceae
(Zannichelliaceae)
Potamogeton, Zannichellia aquatic herbs VAM (NM) Low levels of VAM or NM in submerged aquatics - Clayton & Bgyaraj 1984 (NZ)
Restionaceae

Capillaroid and Sand Binding Roots
Leptocarpus, Loxocarya rushes NM Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995. Sand binding roots with very long root hairs - Pate & Dixon 1996
Alexgeorgia, Lyginia rushes VAM VAM present early winter only - Meney et al. 1993
Ruppiaceae Ruppia aquatic herbs VAM Submerged aquatic - Clayton & Bgyaraj 1984 (NZ), Belik & Khan unpublished
Smilacaceae Smilax vine VAM Reddell et al. 1996
Stemonaceae Stemona vine VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Taccaceae Tacca herb VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Xanthorrhoeaceae Xanthorrhoea shrubs VAM Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991
Xyridaceae Xyris herb NM Brundrett et al. 1995
Zingiberaceae Curcuma herb VAM Brundrett et al. 1995
Key to Row Shading for Plant Families
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM) Myco- heterotrophic (MH) Ectomycorrhiza (ECM) Ericoid Mycorrhiza Orchid Mycorrhiza Root Clusters Parasites Carnivores Other Nonmycorrhizal (NM) Plants
Abbreviations
NM = nonmycorrhizal, ECM/VAM, MH = myco-heterotrophic, VAM/ECM = dual associations with the most important listed first.
Information
Data are from Australian plants, unless another location is given. Records are included for New Zealand genera which also occur in Australia (NZ).
Confirmation
VAM defined by arbuscules and ECM by the presence of a Hartig net confirmed by microscopic examination of cleared or sectioned roots (see methods section).
Plant family classification
Consistent with Heywood et al. (2007) - Flowering Plant Families of the World published by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (Stevens 2001-). Fern families follow Smith et al. (2006) with older names in brackets.
Highlighting
Genera with conflicting evidence
Acknowledgments:
Dr N. Ashwath, Kim Brennan, S. Ragupathy, Alison McInnes and Ben Bayliss contributed to the survey of tropical plants in northern Australia (Brundrett et al. 1995).
 

C. Discussion

 

1. VAM Families

Pimelea (14KB)

The majority of Australian families have VAM associations and many are also known to have VAM from overseas studies. Representatives of some of these families are illustrated below.


Camera Right: Lechenaultia biloba,
Stackhousia monogyna

(Goodeniaceae, Stackhousiaceae)

CameraLeft: Pimelea suaveolens
Scented Banjine
(Thymeliaceae)

Lechenaultia biloba & Stackhousia monogyna
Clematis on Balga (8KB)

Clematis pubescens
Ranunculaceae growing on Xanthorrhoea leaves

Xanthorrhoea 6KB)

Xanthorrhoea preissii
Xanthorrhoeaceae (Grass Tree, Balga)

Hibbertia (10KB)

Hibbertia hypericoides
Dilleniaceae

Kennedia (8KB)

Kennedia prostrata
Papilionaceae

Lechenaultia (8KB)

Lechenaultia biloba
Goodeniaceae

Orthosanthus (7KB)

Orthosanthus laxus
Iridaceae

Boronia (9KB)

Boronia spathulata
Rutaceae

Macrozamia (13KB)

Macrozamia riedlei
Zamiaceae

Tetratheca (11KB)

Tetratheca hirsuta
Elaeocarpaceae

 

2. ECM Families

Australian plant families whose members have ECM include the Casuarinaceae, Fabaceae (Mimosoideae, Papiloinoideae), Meliaceae, Myrtaceae, Nothofagaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Phyllanthaceae and Rhamnaceae. These plants usually have dual ECM/VAM associations and, with the exception of Nothofagaceae, these families also include plant genera which only host VAM. Dual associations are much less prevalent in other parts of the word (Brundrett 1991, 2002). Some examples of Australian ECM fungi is presented in Section 9.

In the family Casuarinaceae, the genus Casuarina has been reported to predominantly have VAM while Allocasuarina has ECM and VAM (Koske et al. 1992, Khan 1993, Dell et al. 1994). Members of the Casuarinaceae also have nitrogen fixing nodules and cluster roots (Lamont 1982, Reddell et al. 1986, Thoen et al. 1990, Reddell et al. 1986, 1997).

Several reports of ECM associations of members of the Sterculiaceae (Warcup 1980) need to be reassessed as these plants have beaded roots which are sometimes mistaken for ECM.

Gompholobium venustum

Gompholobium venustum
Purple Wedge Pea - Fabaceae

Allocasuarina after fire (13KB)

Allocasuarina resprouting after fire - Casuarinaceae

Pisonia grandis

Pisonia grandis (Heron Island) - Nyctaginaceae

Trymalium (14KB)

Trymalium floribundum - Rhamnaceae

 

I. Myrtaceae

Many trees and larger shrubs in the Myrtaceae in Australia have dual ECM/VAM associations. However, small shrubs in the Myrtaceae, such as Calytrix and Verticordia, only have VAM (Brundrett & Abbott 1992). Apogeotrophic roots of Backhousia, Lophostemon and Syzygium growing within tree bark above ground can also have ECM in Queensland rainforests (Reddell et al. 1996). ECM associations also occur in Eucalyptus gomphocephala root mats within ground water in caves (Jasinka et al. 1996).

Eucalyptus (18KB) Agonis (13KB) Melaleuca (9KB)
Eucalyptus calophylla (12KB) Verticordia (12KB)

Eucalyptus megacarpa
Mottlecah a Mallee Eucalypt

Agonis flexuosa ECM / VAM
Peppermint Tree

Melaleuca radula ECM / VAM Melaleuca

Corymbia (Eucalyptus) calophylla ECM (VAM) Gum Tree

Verticordia subulata VAM
Feather Flower

Eucalyptus calophylla ECM (8KB)

ECM roots of Corymbia calophylla

VAM in Eucalyptus root (8KB)

VAM association with arbuscules in root of Corymbia calophylla

Eucalyptus seedlings in plantations or disturbed sites may initially have VAM associations, which are replaced by ECM associations as they mature (Gardner & Malajczuk 1988, Bellei et al. 1992, Chen et al. 2000, Adams et al. 2006). Even mature eucalypt trees can have VAM with arbuscules next to ECM roots as shown. More examples of Eucalyptus ECM are provided in Section 9.
 

II. Fabaceae (Peas)

Australian leguminous plants in the Fabaceae can have VAM, ECM and VAM, NM cluster roots, or VAM and cluster roots (Brundrett & Abbott 1991). Genera reported to have ECM include Chorizema, Gastrolobium, Gompholobium, and Oxylobium. Members of the Fabaceae also have nitrogen fixing nodules (Lamont 1982).

Acacia species may have ECM and VAM, or only VAM. In northern and eastern Australia, Acacia species were reported to have dual VAM and ECM associations or VAM only (Warcup 1980, Reddell & Warren 1987, Bellgard 1991, Brundrett et al. 1994), while acacias from south-western Australia only had VAM (Jasper et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991).

Gompholobium ECM roots (7KB)

Massively swollen ECM roots of Gompholobium venustum a small shrub in the Papilionaceae with ECM and VAM

Mirbelia plant (11KB)

Mirbelia dilatata flowers

III. Atypical (Superficial) ECM Associations

Superficial colonization of long roots, apparently due to ECM fungi, has been observed on roots of some VAM plants. These associations differ from typical ECM associations , because there is a thin mantle, no substantial Hartig net and roots do not respond by slow longitudinal growth, or radial swelling. This has been observed on the roots of Australian plants in the families Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Goodeniaceae, Lobeliaceae and Stylidiaceae (Warcup 1980, Warcup & McGee 1983, Kope & Warcup 1986, McGee 1986). These associations do not conform to a morphological definition of ECM and may be equivalent to endophytic activity (Section 10).

Hyphae on Scaevola root (12KB)

Fungus colonisation on the surface of a Scaevola crassifolia root.

Triggerplant (10KB)

Stylidium schoenoides
Triggerplant (Stylidiaceae). Plants in this genus normally have VAM roots.

 

3. Orchids

Orchid mycorrhizas were found in all Australian terrestrial orchids examined. These fungi are used to propagate Australian orchids (Batty et al. 2002). Orchid mycorrhizas are briefly described in Section 1.

Pterostylis stem mycorrhizas Hyphal coils in orchid root cells (28KB)

Orchid mycorrhiza of Pterostylis sanguinea stem with coils (arrows) hyphae entering rhizome through branched trichomes.

High magnification of hyphal coils in root cells of Thelymitra crinita. Each hyphal coil (pelotion) is approximately 150 µm long.

West Australian Terrestrial Orchids

Paracaleana- Flying Duck Orchid (7KB)

Paracaleana nigrita
Flying Duck Orchid
stem association

Pterostylis - Greenhood Orchid (12KB)

Pterostylis sanguinea
Greenhood Orchid
stem association

Bird Orchid (8KB)

Pterostylis barbata
Bird Orchid
stem association

Cyanicula - Silky Blue Orchid (11KB)

Cyanicula sericea
Silky Blue Orchid
stem association

Prasophyllum - Leek Orchid (16KB)

Prasophyllum elatum
Leek Orchid
root association

Sun Orchid (9KB)

Thelymitra crinita
Sun Orchid
root association

 

4. Ericoid Mycorrhizas

Reed (1987) examined 22 genera and Hutton et al. (1994) examined 14 species. All had ericoid associations. The structure of these associations is very similar to those described from the Northern Hemisphere (Smith & Read 1997, Massicotte et al. 2005b).

Leucopogon verticillatus (12KB)

Leucopogon verticillatus
Tassel Flower

Andersonia caerula, a heath (15KB)

Andersonia caerulea
Blue Andersonia

a heath (15KB)

Conostephium pendulum
Pearl Flower

Leucopogon mycorrhiza (11KB) Leucopogon mycorrhiza (16KB)

Ericoid mycorrhiza in a hair roots and a coarser of Leucopogon verticillatus.

closer view of mycorrhiza in a hair root of L. verticillatus.

 

5. Thysanotus Associations

In roots of Thysanotus species fungal hyphae are restricted to subepidermal cavities in an unusual form of mycorrhizal association first observed by McGee (1988). He found that these associations enhanced the growth of Southern Australian species of Thysanotus. The fungi colonising Thysanotus roots have not been identified.

Thysanotus triandrus (Laxmaniaceae) Thysanotus mycorrhizas

Thysanotus triandrus
Fringe Lily

Cross section of a Thysanotus root with hyphae in sub-epidermal cavity (arrows).

 

6. Conclusions

  1. As is the case in other regions of the World (Brundrett 1991), VAM is the most prevalent association in Australian plant communities.
  2. Trees and plants with ECM associations are dominant in many habitats, and nonmycorrhizal (NM) species such as members of the Proteaceae are also relatively common (Lamont 1982, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Lambers et al. 1996).
  3. Plants in the families Orchidaceae and Ericaceae have consistent mycorrhizal associations different from those of other plants.
  4. Most Australian NM plants have root systems with extensive root hairs and/or root clusters (dense aggregations of lateral roots). Plants with cluster roots include most members of the Proteaceae and Kennedia, Daviesia and Viminaria in the Fabaceae.
  5. Monocotyledons in the Commelinaceae, Cyperaceae, Dasypogonaceae, Juncaceae, Haemodoraceae and Restionaceae have lost mycorrhizas in favour of root clusters and/or sand-binding roots.
  6. Roots of families such as the Proteaceae, Restionaceae and Cyperaceae are usually remain free of fungi, but apparently can occasionally contain VAM.
  7. Parasitic and carnivorous plants generally also have NM roots.
  8. Australian plants with ECM, usually have dual ECM/VAM associations. These include many important trees and shrubs in the families Fabaceae and Myrtaceae. However, there are also many plants in these families that only have VAM.
  9. Some plants in the Asteraceae, Goodeniaceae and Lobeliaceae with VAM are reported to also have associations which resemble ECM, but these lack a key defining feature (the Hartig net).
  10. The greatest variety of mycorrhizal strategies occurs within the tribe Mirbelieae in the family Papilionaceae, which includes (i) plants with VAM only, (ii) plants with dual ECM/VAM and (iii) NM plants with cluster roots and (iv) plants with VAM and cluster roots.
  11. There are even differences in mycorrhizal strategies within some genera. For example, Kennedia has species with VAM (K. prostrata, K. rubicunda) or with NM cluster roots (K. coccinea).
  12. The complexity of mycorrhizal associations in families much as the Myrtaceae and Fabaceae makes it necessary to sample roots to determine mycorrhizal association types.

The complexities of the root biology of Australian plants are a fascinating topic for study. Evidence that nutrient uptake strategies appear to be evolving more rapidly here, than elsewhere is provided by differences in the mycorrhizal status of plants within families such as the Fabaceae and Myrtaceae, or even within some genera. However, the majority of families have consistent mycorrhizal associations. The versatility of roots of many important Australian trees and shrubs may be an adaptation to survival in harsh or fluctuating environmental conditions. It would seem that no nutrient uptake strategy is clearly superior to the others, as plants with different root types coexist in most plant communities. The functional diversity of the roots of Australian plants may be important to maximise nutrient cycling and conservation and may help to explain the very high plant diversity that occurs in extremely infertile soils.

 

D. Help Provide Information

This page will be updated to include new information. Please provide any additional relevant information you have or know about. Include complete citation information and your name as you would like it to appear for acknowledgment purposes. It is also necessary to state the criteria you used to designate association types (i.e. Arbuscules for VAM, Hartig net for ECM).

Version 2 © Mark Brundrett 2008