MYCORRHIZAL ASSOCIATIONS: The Web Resource

Section 8. MYCORRHIZAL ASSOCIATIONS OF AUSTRALIAN PLANTS

A. Introduction

This section summarises knowledge of mycorrhizal associations of Australian plant families and genera in the table below. This information can be used to help restore disturbed habitats and to understand interactions between plants, fungi and animals, as well as nutrient cycling in natural ecosystems. More information on nonmycorrhizal plants is provided in Section 6. Definitions used to define arbuscular mycorrhizas (VAM) and ectomycorrhizas (ECM) follow section 1. However, papers do not always state that structures which define associations were observed. Some plants were reported to be mycorrhizal in some studies, but not others. These may be facultatively mycorrhizal plants, inadequate samples, or cases where mycorrhizal definitions were not applied.

B. Mycorrhizas and Roots of Australian Plants

Table background colours separate mycorrhizal categories. Plant genera with more than one category are highlighted. Results are summarised in the following section. Generic names follow the original publications in most cases, but family names have been updated.

Family

Species

Form

Mycorrhiza

References

˙

I. FERNS & FERN ALLIES (see Section 2 also)
Aspleniaceae	Asplenium	ferns	VAM / NM	most samples NM - Cooper 1976 (NZ), VAM & NM - Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii).
Blechnaceae	Blechnum	ferns	VAM	Cooper 1976 (NZ), Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii).
Cyatheaceae	Cyathea	tree ferns	VAM	Cooper 1976 (NZ), Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii).
Dennstaedtiaceae	Hypolepis (NZ), Pteridium	fern	VAM	Cooper 1976 (NZ), Brockhoff & Allaway 1988, Logan et al. 1989. NM - Sward 1978
Dicksoniaceae	Dicksonia	tree fern	VAM	Cooper 1976 (NZ)
Dryopteridaceae	Polystichum, Rumohra	ferns	VAM	Cooper 1976 (NZ).
Gleicheniaceae	Gleichenia	ferns	VAM	Cooper 1976 (NZ).
Hymenophyllaceae	Hymenophyllum, Trichomanes	filmy ferns	VAM	Cooper 1976 (NZ).
Isoetaceae	Isoetes (submerged aquatic plants)	fern ally	VAM	Clayton & Bagyaraj 1984 (NZ). See Section 2.
Lindsaeaceae	Lindsaea	fern	VAM	Cooper 1976 (NZ), Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii), Brundrett et al. 1995.
Lycopodiaceae	Lycopodium, Phylloglossum	fern ally	VAM, NM	Lycopodium adult VAM Cooper 1976 (NZ), NM - Johnston & Ryan 2000. Phylloglossum Hyphal coils in gametophyte MH VAM? - Holloway 1935 (NZ).
Nephrolepidaceae (=Lomariopsidaceae)	Arthropteris (NZ) Nephrolepis	fern	VAM	Cooper 1976 (NZ) Nephrolepis epiphyte - Reddell et al. 1996
Osmondaceae	Todea	ferns	VAM	Cooper 1976 (NZ)
Polypodiaceae (Grammitidaceae)	Drynaria, Grammitis, Pyrrosia	ferns	VAM (NM)	Cooper 1976 (NZ). Drynaria NM on rock - Brundrett et al. 1995.
Psilotaceae	Tmesipteris (NZ), Psilotum	lower ferns	VAM, MH VAM	Tmesipteris Sporophyte VAM - Copper 1976 (NZ). Psilotum soporophyte VAM - M. Brundrett (unpublished), Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii). See Section 2.
Pteridaceae (inc. Adiantaceae, Hemionitidaceae, Sinopteridaceae)	Adiantum, Cheilanthes, Pellaea, Platyzoma, Pteris	ferns	VAM (NM)	Cooper 1976 (NZ), Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii), Platyzoma NM - Brundrett et al. 1995.
Schizaeaceae	Schizaea	ferns	VAM	Copper 1976 (NZ), Gemma et al. 1992 (Hawaii), Brundrett et al. 1995
Selaginellaceae	Selaginella	fern ally	NM / VAM	Sward 1978. VAM also reported - see Section 2.
Thelypteridaceae	Thelypteris	fern	VAM	Cooper 1976 (NZ).
Woodsiaceae (Athyriaceae)	Cystopteris	fern	VAM	Cooper 1976 (NZ).

II. GYMNOSPERMS (see Section 2 also)
Araucariaceae	Agathis, Aracauria, Phyllocladus, Wollemia	trees	VAM	Beaded VAM roots - Baylis et al. 1963 (NZ), Bevege 1968 (7 spp.), McGee et al. 1999. Wollemia occasional ECM - McGee et al. 1999.
Cupressaceae	Callitris	trees	VAM	Bevege 1968,Reddell & Milnes 1992, Pattinson et al. 2004.
Podocarpaceae	Dacrycarpus, Dacrydium, Podocarpus, (Prumnopitys)	trees, shrub	VAM	Bevege 1968 (3 spp.), Reddell et al. 1996. NZ refs - Baylis et al. 1963, Johnson 1977, Hurst et al. 2002, Russell et al. 2002. VAM in beaded roots
Zamiaceae	Lepidozamia, Macrozamia (Cycads)	shrubs, trees	VAM	Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell et al. 1996. These also have coralloid N2 fixing roots - Lamont 1982, Grove et al. 1980.

III. ANGIOSPERMS - DICOTYLEDONS
Aizoaceae	Carpobrotus, Sesuvium, Trianthema	herbs	NM	Brockhoff & Allaway 1988, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett et al. 1995.
Amaranthaceae	Alternanthera, Gomphrena, Ptilotus	herbs	NM	Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, O'Connor et al. 2001
Anacardiaceae	Buchanania	tree	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Annonaceae	Melodorum, Polyalthia, Xylopia	vine, trees	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996
Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)	Aciphylla, Actinotis, Eryngium, Platysace, Hydrocotyle, Lilaeopsis, Oreomyrrhis, Trachymene, Xanthosia	herbs	VAM	Johnson 1977 (NZ), Sward 1978, Clayton & Bagyaraj 1984 (NZ), Peterson et al. 1985, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Bellgard 1991, Johnson & Ryan 2000, O'Connor et al. 2001, Warcup (1980) and Bellgard (1991) report ECM-like association in Platysace.
Apocynaceae (Asclepiadaceae)	Alyxia, Cynanchum, Ichnocarpus, Wrightia	herb, shrub, vine, trees	VAM	Koske 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Gehring & Connell 2006.
Apodanthaceae (Rafflesiaceae)	Pilostyles	internal parasite	NM	Parasitic Plants lacking roots
Araliaceae	Polyscias, Schefflera	trees	VAM (NM)	Reddell et al. 1996 (Schefflera NM)
Asteraceae	Brachycome, Calocephalus, Calotis, Celmisia, Cephalipterum, Chthonocephalus, Cotula, Craspedia, Chrysanthemoides, Gnephosis, Helichrysum, Helipterum, Leucochrysum, Millotia, Olearia, Othonna, Polycalymma, Rhodanthe, Senecio, Waitzia, Vittadinia,	herbs, shrubs	VAM	Sward 1978, Warcup & McGee 1983, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Koske et al. 1992, Johnson & Ryan 2000, O'Connor et al. 2001. Warcup & McGee 1983 and Kope & Warcup 1986 - ECM-like asociation in Angianthus, Helichrysum, Helipterum, Podolepis, Waitzia
Balanophoraceae Parasitic Plants	Balanophora	parasite	NM	Family of obligate parasites lacking roots - Heywood et al. 1996
Bignoniaceae	Deplanchea	tree	VAM	Reddell et al. 1996
Boraginaceae	Argusia, Omphalalappula, Trichodesma	shrub, herbs	VAM (NM)	Peterson et al. 1985, O'Connor et al. 2001
Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)	*Cakile, Blennodium, Lepidium, *Sisymbrium (*weeds)	herbs	NM (VAM)	Peterson et al. 1985, O'Connor et al. 2001. Lepidium VAM or NM - Peterson et al. 1985, Koske et al. 1992. Consistently NM family - DeMars & Boerner 1996.
Burseraceae	Canarium	tree	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Campanulaceae (Lobeliaceae)	Lobelia	herbs	VAM	VAM - Warcup 1988, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Koske et al. 1992. ECM-like associations also - Warcup 1988
Cleomaceae (Capparaceae)	Cleome	herb	NM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Caryophyllaceae	Calobanthus	shrubs	VAM	Alpine plants - Johnson & Ryan 2000
Casuarinaceae (Nitrogen fixing)	Allocasuarina, Casuarina	trees shrubs	ECM/ VAM	Warcup 1980, Reddell et al. 1986, Thoen et al. 1990, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, N fixing nodules & cluster roots.
	Casuarina	trees	VAM (ECM)	Predominantly VAM - Khan 1993, Koske et al. 1992, Dell et al. 1994
	Gymnostoma	tree	VAM	VAM in beaded roots - Duhoux et al. 2001
Celastraceae (inc. Stackhousiaceae)	Hippocratea, Lophopetalum, Stackhousia, Tripterococcus	tree, herbs	VAM	Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996
Chenopodiaceae	Atriplex, Enchyleana, Rhagodia, Salsola, Sclerolaena	shrubs	NM (AM)	Logan et al. 1989, Koske et al. 1992, O'Connor et al. 2001, Asghari et al. 2005 (low hyphal colonisation, arbuscules may be present)
Chrysobalanaceae	Maranthes	tree	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Clusiaceae	Calophyllum, Garcina	trees	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Gehring & Connell 2006
Cochlospermaceae (Bixaceae)	Cochlospermum	tree	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Combretaceae	Terminalia	trees	VAM	Koske 1992, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995
Convolvulaceae	Calystegia, Convolvulus, Evolvulus, Ipomoea, Polymeria	vines	VAM	Logan et al. 1989, Koske et al. 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, O'Connor et al. 2001 (Ipomoea normally VAM)
Cucurbitaceae	Citrullus (weed)	herbs	VAM	O'Connor et al. 2001
Cunoniaceae	Ceratopetalum	trees	VAM	Sheathing association with no Hartig net considered to be a type of ECM - McGee & Furby 1992., Gehring & Connell 2006
Dilleniaceae	Dillenia, Hibbertia, Pachynema	shrubs, Tree	VAM	Sward 1978, Brockhoff & Allaway 1988, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Bellgard 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996
Droseraceae Carnivorous Plants	Drosera (Sundews), Aldrovanda (Waterwheel Plant)	herbs, climbers, aquatic plant	NM	Consistently NM - McGee 1986, Sward 1978, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995. Aldrovanda has no roots at maturity - Lowrie 1998. See NM plants section.
Ebenaceae	Diospyros	tree	VAM	Reddell et al. 1996
Elaeocarpaceae (Tremandraceae)	Elaeocarpus, Tetratheca	tree, shrub	VAM	Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell et al 1996
Ericaceae (Inc. Epacridaceae)	Acrotriche, Andersonia, Astroloma, Brachyloma, Conostephium, Dracophyllum, Epacris, Leucopogon, Lissanthe, Lysinema, Melichrus, Monotoca, Needhamiella, Oligarrhena, Pentachondra, Richea, Rupicola, Sphenotoma, Sprengelia, Styphelia, Trochocarpa, Woollsia	shrubs	Ericoid	Typical ericoid mycorrhizal associations were observed in Australian Ericaceae by Sward 1978, Reed 1987, Bellgard 1991, Hutton et al. 1994, McLean & Lawrie 1996, Cairney & Ashford 2002 and also by McNabb 1961 in New Zealand.Bellgard 1991 reported occasional VAM in epacrids. Styphelia reverted to VAM in Hawaii - Koske et al. 1992.
Euphorbaceae S.S.	Euphorbia, Ricinocarpus (see Picrodendraceae and Phyllanthaceae also)	herbs	VAM	Brockhoff & Allaway 1988, Peterson et al. 1985, O'Connor et al. 2001
Fabaceae I: Ceasalpinoidea (Caesalpiniaceae)	Cassia, Erythrophleum, Senna, Labichea	shrubs trees	VAM	Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995. N fixing nodules - Lamont 1982.
Fabaceae II: Subfamily Mimosoidea (Mimosaceae)	Acacia (Wattles)	shrubs	ECM/ VAM	Warcup 1980, McGee 1986, Reddell & Warren 1987, Bellgard 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995. See note on Acacia below. N2 fixing nodules.
	Acacia	shrubs	VAM	Sward 1978, McGee 1986, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995. N2 fixing nodules.
Fabaceae III: Subfamily Papilionoidea (Papilionaceae)	Alysicarpus, Bossiaea, Cajanus, Crotalaria, Cullen, Daviesia, Desmodium, Dillwynia, Galactia, Gompholobium, Hardenbergia, Hovea, Indigofera, Jacksonia, Kennedia, Swainsona, Templetonia, Tephrosia, Uraria	shrubs herbs	VAM	Sward 1978, Brockhoff & Allaway 1988, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Bellgard 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, O'Connor et al. 2001. N2 fixing nodules - Lamont 1982
	Viminaria	shrubs	VAM	cluster roots Brundrett & Abbott 1991. See Fabaceae roots below.
	Daviesia, Kennedia	shrubs climbers	NM	Cluster roots Brundrett & Abbott 1991. See Fabaceae roots below.
	Brachysema, Burtonia, Chorizema, Daviesia, Dillwynia, Eutaxia, Gastrolobium, Gompholobium, Hardenbergia, Jacksonia, Mirbelia, Oxylobium, Platylobium, Pultenaea, Viminaria	shrubs	ECM/ VAM	ECM and VAM in roots - Warcup 1980, Lamont et al. 1985, Kope & Warcup 1986, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Bellgard 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995
Frankeniaceae	Frankenia	shrub	NM?	Sparse colonisation, arbuscules not seen - O'Connor et al. 2001. (More work needed)
Geraniaceae	Erodium (weed), Pelargonium	herbs	VAM	Logan et al. 1989, O'Connor et al. 2001
Goodeniaceae	Calogyne, Dampiera, Goodenia, Lechenaultia, Scaevola	herbs, shrubs	VAM	VAM - Peterson et al. 1985, Sward 1987, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Koske et al. 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, O'Connor et al. 2001. ECM-like association also - Warcup 1980, Bellgard 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992
Haloragaceae	Dryland plant: Glischrocaryon Submerged aquatic: Myriophyllum	herbs	VAM	McGee 1986 Clayton & Bagyaraj 1984 (NZ)
Icacinaceae	Apodytes	tree	VAM	Gehring & Connell 2006
Lamiaceae	Epimeredi, Hemigenia, Hyptis, Pityrodia (Chloanthaceae), Prosanthera, Westringia	herbs, shrubs	VAM	McGee 1986, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995
Lauraceae	Cryptocarya, Beilschmiedia, Litsea	trees	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Gehring 2003, Gehring & Connell 2006
	Cassytha (Dodder)	vine	NM	Haustorial parasites without roots.
Lecythidaceae	Planchonia	tree	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Lentibulariaceae Carnivorous Plants	Utricularia (bladderworts)	herbs	NM	Aquatic and semi-aquatic carnivorous plants with traps instead of roots - Lowrie 1998.
Loganiaceae	Mitrasacme, Strychnos	herb, tree	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Loranthaceae Parasitic Plants	Amyema, Decaisnina, Dendrophthoe, Lysiana (Mistletoes) Nuytsia (Christmas Tree)	epiphytes, tree	NM	Parasitic epiphytes attached to branches by haustoria. Nuytsia is a tree with root haustoria. Nuytsia roots NM - Brundrett & Abbott 1991. See photos of these plants in Section 6.
Malvaceae	Albutilon, Hibiscus, Malvastrum, Sida	herbs, shrubs	VAM (NM)	Peterson et al. 1985, Brundrett et al. 1995, O'Connor et al. 2001 (some samples NM)
Melastomataceae	Melastoma	shrub	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Meliaceae	Owenia	tree	VAM/ ECM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Menispermaceae	Stephania	climber	VAM	Logan et al. 1989
Menyanthaceae	Nymphoides	aquatic herb	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Molluginaceae	Glinus	herb	NM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Monimiaceae	Doryphora, Wilkiea	tree	VAM	Reddell et al. 1996, Gehring & Connell 2006
Moraceae	Ficus	trees	VAM (NM)	Brundrett et al. 1995, (NM - Reddell et al. 1996). Strangler figs Mexico have VAM - Guevara & López 2007.
Myoporaceae	Eremophila	shrubs	VAM	O'Connor et al. 2001
Myrsinaceae	Rapanea	tree	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Myrtaceae	Allosyncarpia, Agonis, Angophora, Backhousia, Asteromyrtus, Callistemon, Calytrix, Corymbia, Eucalyptus, Kunzea, Leptospermum, Lophostemon, Melaleuca, Syzygium (Tristania, Tristaniopsis)	trees, shrubs	ECM/ (VAM)	Chilvers & Pryor 1965, Chilvers 1973, Lamont 1979, Warcup 1980, McGee 1986, Sward 1987, Bellgard 1991, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Howard et al. 2000. See Myrtaceae below. Tristania in Brunei - Moyersoen et al. 2001. Tristaniopsis New Caledonia - Perrier et al. 2006.
	Agonis, Leptospermum, Melaleuca, Pericalymma	shrubs, trees	VAM/ ECM	Dual associations - Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Khan 1993, Pattinson et al. 2004. See Myrtaceae below.
	Acmena, Asteromyrtus, Calytrix, Baeckea, Hypocalymma, Metrosideros (NZ), Rhodomyrtus, Syzygium, Verticordia, Xanthostemon	shrubs, trees	VAM	VAM only - McGee 1986, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, McKenzie et al. 1999 (Metrosideros - NZ), Gehring 2003, Gehring & Connell 2006.
Nothofagaceae (Fagaceae S. L.)	Nothofagus	trees	ECM	Warcup 1980, McKenzie et al. 2000 (NZ), Perrier et al. 2006 (New Caledonia)
Nyctaginaceae	Pisonia	tree	ECM	Ashford & Allaway 1982, Chambers et al. 2005. Most other members of this family are NM.
Nymphaeaceae	Nymphaea (Waterlily)	herb	VAM	Aquatic plant - Brundrett et al. 1995, Khan & Belik 1995
Ochnaceae	Brackenridgea	tree	NM	Gehring & Connell 2006
Oleaceae	Chionanthus	tree	VAM	Reddell et al. 1996
Onagraceae	Epilobium, Ludwigia	herb	VAM	Johnston & Ryan 2000 (Epilobium alpine), Aquatic Ludwigia VAM or NM - Brundrett et al. 1995
Picrodendraceae (Euphorbiaceae S. L.)	Petalostigma	shrub	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Phyllanthaceae (Euphorbiaceae S. L.)	Shrubs: Phyllanthus, Sebastiania Tropical trees: Actephila, Antidesmia, Baloghia, Rockinhamia	trees, shrubs	VAM	Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, O'Connor et al. 2001. Some tropical trees NM: Gehring & Connell 2006
	Ampera, Poranthera	shrubs	ECM/ VAM	Dual associations - Warcup 1980, Kope & Warcup 1986, Bellgard 1991
Pittosporaceae	Billardiera, Pittosporum, Sollya	climbers	VAM	Johnson 1977 (NZ), Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell et al. 1996
Plantaginaceae	Plantago	herb	VAM	O'Connor et al. 2001
Polygalaceae	Comesperma, Polygala	shrubs	VAM	Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995
Polygonaceae	Persicaria	herbs	NM	Considered to be a NM family. NM - Brundrett et al. 1995
Portulacaceae	Calandrinia, Portulaca	herbs	NM	McGee 1986, Brundrett et al. 1995, Dhillion et al. 1995 (Chile), O'Connor et al. 2001
Proteaceae Cluster roots	Adenanthos, Banksia, Cardwellia, Conospermum, Darlingia, Dryandra, Grevillea, Hakea, Isopogon, Lomatia, Orites, Placospermum, Stenocarpus, Stirlingia, Synaphea, Telopea, Xylomelum	shrubs trees	NM	Roots consistantly NM (lack arbuscules) - McGee 1986, Sward 1987, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Pattinson & McGee 2004, Gehring & Connell 2006. Conospermum, Hakea, Telopea have occasional colonisation of root - Bellgard 1991, Boulet & Lambers 2005. See Nonmycorrhizal Plants page.
Ranunculaceae	Clematis, Ranunculus	climber, herbs	VAM	Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995, Johnston & Ryan 2000,Ranuculus aquatic - Clayton & Bagyaraj 1984 (NZ)
Rhamnaceae	Cryptandra, Pomaderris, Spyridium, Trymalium	shrubs	ECM/ VAM	Warcup 1980, McGee 1986, Brundrett & Abbott 1991
	Alphitonia, Cryptandra, Spyridium	shrubs, tree	VAM	McGee 1986, Reddell & Milnes 1992
Rhizophoraceae	Carallia	tree	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Rubiaceae	Aidia, Borreria, Canthium, Gardenia, Ixora, Opercularia, Pogonobolus, Pomax, Psychotria, Randia, Timonius	shrubs, trees	VAM	Brockhoff & Allaway 1988, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996. Randia listed as NM in Gehring & Connell 2006, but is VAM in Reddell et al. 1996. Ixora has ECM-like association without Hartig net - Reddell et al. 1996.
Rutaceae	Achronichia, Boronia, Correa, Euodia, Flindersia, Glycosmis, Halfordia, Phebalium, Philotheca (Eriostemon)	shrubs, trees	VAM	Bevege 1968, McGee 1986, Sward 1987, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Bellgard 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Gehring 2003, Gehring & Connell 2006
Santalaceae Hemiparasites	Exocarpus, Leptomeria, Santalum	trees	VAM / NM?	Santalum VAM or NM in Hawaii - Koske et al. 1992. Parasitic plants with root haustoria - Lamont 1982.
Sapindaceae	Dodonaea, Ellatostachys, Castanospora, Ganophyllum, Mischocarpus, Sarcopteryx	trees	VAM (NM)	VAM - Koske et al. 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996, Pattinson et al. 2004. NM or VAM - Gehring & Connell 2006
Sapotaceae	Castanospermum, Chrysophyllum, Planchonella	trees	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995, Abu-Zeyad et al. 1999, Reddell et al. 1996, Gehring & Connell 2006
Scrophulariaceae Hemiparasites	Buchnera, Parentucellia (weed) Striga (Orobanchaceae)	herbs	NM	Root hemi-parasites NM - Brundrett et al. 1995, Brundrett unpublished.
	Euphrasia, Glossostigma, Limosella	herbs	VAM	Aquatic Glossostigma spp. - Clayton & Bagyaraj 1984 (NZ). Euphrasia - Johnson & Ryan 2000 (Alpine).
Solanaceae	Physalis, Solanum, Nicotiana	herbs	VAM	Reddell & Milnes 1992, O'Connor et al. 2001
Sterculiaceae	Argyrodendron, Brachychiton, Franciscodendron, Lasiopetalum, Melochia, Thomasia, Waltheria	shrubs, trees	VAM	Brundrett & Abbott 1991 (beaded roots), Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Gehring & Connell 2006. Lasiopetalum, Thomasia ECM-like association - Warcup 1980.
Stylidiaceae	Stylidium (Triggerplants)	herbs	VAM	VAM in very fine lateral roots - Warcup 1980, Kope & Warcup 1986, Brundrett & Abbott 1991. ECM-like association also without Hartig net - Warcup 1980, Kope & Warcup 1986.
Tiliaceae	Triumfetta	shrub	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Thymelaeaceae	Pimelea, Thecanthes	shrubs	VAM	McGee 1986, Sward 1987, Bellgard 1991, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995
Ulmaceae	Celtis	tree	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Verbenaceae	Clerodendrum, Gmelina, Pityrodia	shrub tree herb	VAM	Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995
Violaceae	Hybanthus	herb	VAM	McGee 1986, Brundrett et al. 1995
Vitaceae	Ampelocissus, Cayratia, Cissus	climbers	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996
Zygophyllaceae	Tribulus, Zygophyllum	herbs, shrub	NM	Peterson et al. 1985, Koske et al. 1992, O'Connor et al. 2001

IV. ANGIOSPERMS - MONOCOTYLEDONS
Amaryllidaceae	Crinum	herb	VAM	Brundrett & Abbott 1991
Araceae	Amorphophallus	herb	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
	Epipremnum	climber	NM	(epiphyte) Brundrett et al. 1995
Arecaceae	Calamus, Carpenteria, Livistona, Normanbya (palms)	trees, climbers	VAM	Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Reddell et al. 1996
Asphodelaceae	Bulbine	herbs	VAM	McGee 1986, O'Connor et al. 2001
Asteliaceae	Astelia	herb	VAM	Johnson 1977 (NZ)
Burmanniaceae	Thismia	herb	MH VAM	hyphal coils in saprophytic plant without chlorophyll - McLennan 1958.
Centrolepidaceae	Centrolepis	herb	NM	Sward 1987
Colchicaceae	Burchardia, Wurmbea	herbs	VAM	Brundrett & Abbott 1991
Commelinaceae	Cartonema, Commelina, Murdannia	herbs	NM (VAM)	NM - Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett et al. 1995. see NM plants
Cyperaceae Dauciform or Sand Binding Roots	Arthrostylis, Bulbostylis, Carex, Cyperus, Eleocharis, Fimbristylis, Rhynchospora, Scleria, etc.	sedges	NM	NM only - Logan et al. 1989, Bellgard 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995. Sand binding roots - Pate & Dixon 1996.
	Caustis, Isolepis, Gahnia, Lepidosperma, Tetraria	sedges	NM (VAM)	VAM present in early winter only - Lamont 1982, Meney et al. 1993, Gahnia VAM in Hawaii - Koske et al. 1992. Lepidosperma VAM in New Caledonia - Perrier et al. 2006. Endophytic associations? - see NM plants section.
Dasypogonaceae	Kingia	shrub	NM	NM with long root hairs - Brundrett & Abbott 1991
Dioscoreaceae	Dioscorea	vine	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Eriocaulaceae	Eriocaulon	herb	VAM / NM	Aquatic plant. VAM - Khan & Belik 1995, Brundrett et al. 1995. NM - Ragupathy & Mahadevan 1993 (India).
Flagellariaceae	Flagellaria	vine	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Haemodoraceae Sand Binding Roots	Anigozanthos, Conostylis, Haemodorum	herbs	NM	Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995. Sand binding roots with very long root hairs - Pate & Dixon 1996.
Hemerocallidaceae	Agrostocrinum, Dianella, Tricoryne (formerly in Anthericaceae & Lomandraceae)	herbs	VAM	Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Dianella VAM in Hawaii - Koske et al. 1992
Juncaceae	Juncus, Luzula	rushes	NM (VAM)	Family of typically NM plants Nm- Sward 1987. Alpine Luzula sp. 0-61% VAM - Johnston & Ryan 2000. Some have root clusters.
Juncaginaceae	Triglochin	herbs	NM	Family of typically NM plants. NM- Belik & Khan 1993, also Fontenla et al. 2001 (Argentina), Hildebrandt et al. 2001 (Europe).
Iridaceae	Patersonia	herbs	VAM	Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995
Laxmaniaceae	Chamaescilla, Laxmannia, Sowerbaea (formerly in Anthericaceae & Lomandraceae)	herbs	VAM	Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Brundrett et al. 1995.
	Lomandra	herbs	NM	NM - McGee 1986, Bellgard 1991. VAM - Logan et al. 1989.
	Thysanotus	herbs	Other	Unique sub-epidermal association - McGee 1988, Brundrett & Abbott 1991.
Najadaceae (Hydrocharitaceae)	Najas	aquatic herb	NM (VAM)	Aquatic plants. Brundrett et al. 1995. VAM also - Khan & Belik 1995
Orchidaceae Orchids	Acianthus, Caladenia, Calochilus, Corybas, Cryptostylis, Dendrobium*, Diuris, Drakaea, Elythranthera, Epiblema, Eriochilus, Geodorum, Leporella, Lyperanthus, Microtis, Paracaleana, Prasophyllum, Pterostylis, Spiculaea, Thelymitra	herbs, *epiphytes	Orchid	Reviews: Brundrett 2007, Dearnaley 2007. Ramsay et al. (1986) found orchid mycorrhizas in all 144 temperate WA taxa examined. Abdul Karim (2004) observed mycorrhizas in all 12 tropical WA orchids examined.
	Aphyllorchis, Didymoplexis, Dipodium, Epipogium, Erythrorchis, Gastrodia, Pseudovanilla, Rhizanthella	herbs	MH Orchid	Mursidawati 2003, See Batty et al. 2002 for other references. Jones 2006 lists achlorophyllous Australian orchids.
Pandanaceae	Pandanus (Pandans, Screwpines)	shrubs, trees	VAM (NM)	VAM - Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995. NM Great Barrier Reef and Hawaii - Peterson et al. 1985, Koske et al. 1992.
Philydraceae	Philydrella, Philydrum	herbs	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995, Brundrett unpublished
Poaceae (Graminae)	Alloteropsis, Bambusa, Brachiaria, Capillipedium, Chionachne, Danthonia, Digitaria, Ectrosia, Eragrostis, Eriachne, Festuca, Heteropogon, Imperata, Micraira, Mniesithea, Panicum, Paspalum, Poa, Plectrachne, Schizachyrium, Setaria, Sorghum, Spinifex, Tetrarrhena, Themeda, Triodia, Triraphis, Zoysia	grasses	VAM	Usually low levels of colonisation and some nonmycorrhizal samples - Crush 1973 (NZ), McGee 1986, Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995, Johnson & Ryan 2000, O'Connor et al. 2001.
Potamogetonaceae (Zannichelliaceae)	Potamogeton, Zannichellia	aquatic herbs	VAM (NM)	Low levels of VAM or NM in submerged aquatics - Clayton & Bgyaraj 1984 (NZ)
Restionaceae Capillaroid and Sand Binding Roots	Leptocarpus, Loxocarya	rushes	NM	Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Reddell & Milnes 1992, Brundrett et al. 1995. Sand binding roots with very long root hairs - Pate & Dixon 1996
	Alexgeorgia, Lyginia	rushes	VAM	VAM present early winter only - Meney et al. 1993
Ruppiaceae	Ruppia	aquatic herbs	VAM	Submerged aquatic - Clayton & Bgyaraj 1984 (NZ), Belik & Khan unpublished
Smilacaceae	Smilax	vine	VAM	Reddell et al. 1996
Stemonaceae	Stemona	vine	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Taccaceae	Tacca	herb	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Xanthorrhoeaceae	Xanthorrhoea	shrubs	VAM	Logan et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991
Xyridaceae	Xyris	herb	NM	Brundrett et al. 1995
Zingiberaceae	Curcuma	herb	VAM	Brundrett et al. 1995

Key to Row Shading for Plant Families
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM)	Myco- heterotrophic (MH)	Ectomycorrhiza (ECM)	Ericoid Mycorrhiza	Orchid Mycorrhiza	Root Clusters	Parasites	Carnivores	Other Nonmycorrhizal (NM) Plants

Abbreviations

NM = nonmycorrhizal, ECM/VAM, MH = myco-heterotrophic, VAM/ECM = dual associations with the most important listed first.

Information

Data are from Australian plants, unless another location is given. Records are included for New Zealand genera which also occur in Australia (NZ).

Confirmation

VAM defined by arbuscules and ECM by the presence of a Hartig net confirmed by microscopic examination of cleared or sectioned roots (see methods section).

Plant family classification

Consistent with Heywood et al. (2007) - Flowering Plant Families of the World published by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (Stevens 2001-). Fern families follow Smith et al. (2006) with older names in brackets.

Highlighting

Genera with conflicting evidence

Acknowledgments:

Dr N. Ashwath, Kim Brennan, S. Ragupathy, Alison McInnes and Ben Bayliss contributed to the survey of tropical plants in northern Australia (Brundrett et al. 1995).

C. Discussion

1. VAM Families

The majority of Australian families have VAM associations and many are also known to have VAM from overseas studies. Representatives of some of these families are illustrated below. Right: Lechenaultia biloba, Stackhousia monogyna (Goodeniaceae, Stackhousiaceae) Left: Pimelea suaveolens Scented Banjine (Thymeliaceae)

Clematis pubescens Ranunculaceae growing on Xanthorrhoea leaves	Xanthorrhoea preissii Xanthorrhoeaceae (Grass Tree, Balga)	Hibbertia hypericoides Dilleniaceae
Kennedia prostrata Papilionaceae	Lechenaultia biloba Goodeniaceae	Orthosanthus laxus Iridaceae
Boronia spathulata Rutaceae	Macrozamia riedlei Zamiaceae	Tetratheca hirsuta Elaeocarpaceae

2. ECM Families

Australian plant families whose members have ECM include the Casuarinaceae, Fabaceae (Mimosoideae, Papiloinoideae), Meliaceae, Myrtaceae, Nothofagaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Phyllanthaceae and Rhamnaceae. These plants usually have dual ECM/VAM associations and, with the exception of Nothofagaceae, these families also include plant genera which only host VAM. Dual associations are much less prevalent in other parts of the word (Brundrett 1991, 2002). Some examples of Australian ECM fungi is presented in Section 9.

In the family Casuarinaceae, the genus Casuarina has been reported to predominantly have VAM while Allocasuarina has ECM and VAM (Koske et al. 1992, Khan 1993, Dell et al. 1994). Members of the Casuarinaceae also have nitrogen fixing nodules and cluster roots (Lamont 1982, Reddell et al. 1986, Thoen et al. 1990, Reddell et al. 1986, 1997).

Several reports of ECM associations of members of the Sterculiaceae (Warcup 1980) need to be reassessed as these plants have beaded roots which are sometimes mistaken for ECM.

Gompholobium venustum Purple Wedge Pea - Fabaceae	Allocasuarina resprouting after fire - Casuarinaceae	Pisonia grandis (Heron Island) - Nyctaginaceae
	Trymalium floribundum - Rhamnaceae

I. Myrtaceae

Many trees and larger shrubs in the Myrtaceae in Australia have dual ECM/VAM associations. However, small shrubs in the Myrtaceae, such as Calytrix and Verticordia, only have VAM (Brundrett & Abbott 1992). Apogeotrophic roots of Backhousia, Lophostemon and Syzygium growing within tree bark above ground can also have ECM in Queensland rainforests (Reddell et al. 1996). ECM associations also occur in Eucalyptus gomphocephala root mats within ground water in caves (Jasinka et al. 1996).

Eucalyptus megacarpa Mottlecah a Mallee Eucalypt	Agonis flexuosa ECM / VAM Peppermint Tree	Melaleuca radula ECM / VAM Melaleuca
	Corymbia (Eucalyptus) calophylla ECM (VAM) Gum Tree	Verticordia subulata VAM Feather Flower

ECM roots of Corymbia calophylla

VAM association with arbuscules in root of Corymbia calophylla

Eucalyptus seedlings in plantations or disturbed sites may initially have VAM associations, which are replaced by ECM associations as they mature (Gardner & Malajczuk 1988, Bellei et al. 1992, Chen et al. 2000, Adams et al. 2006). Even mature eucalypt trees can have VAM with arbuscules next to ECM roots as shown. More examples of Eucalyptus ECM are provided in Section 9.

II. Fabaceae (Peas)

Australian leguminous plants in the Fabaceae can have VAM, ECM and VAM, NM cluster roots, or VAM and cluster roots (Brundrett & Abbott 1991). Genera reported to have ECM include Chorizema, Gastrolobium, Gompholobium, and Oxylobium. Members of the Fabaceae also have nitrogen fixing nodules (Lamont 1982).

Acacia species may have ECM and VAM, or only VAM. In northern and eastern Australia, Acacia species were reported to have dual VAM and ECM associations or VAM only (Warcup 1980, Reddell & Warren 1987, Bellgard 1991, Brundrett et al. 1994), while acacias from south-western Australia only had VAM (Jasper et al. 1989, Brundrett & Abbott 1991).

Massively swollen ECM roots of Gompholobium venustum a small shrub in the Papilionaceae with ECM and VAM

Mirbelia dilatata flowers

III. Atypical (Superficial) ECM Associations

Superficial colonization of long roots, apparently due to ECM fungi, has been observed on roots of some VAM plants. These associations differ from typical ECM associations , because there is a thin mantle, no substantial Hartig net and roots do not respond by slow longitudinal growth, or radial swelling. This has been observed on the roots of Australian plants in the families Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Goodeniaceae, Lobeliaceae and Stylidiaceae (Warcup 1980, Warcup & McGee 1983, Kope & Warcup 1986, McGee 1986). These associations do not conform to a morphological definition of ECM and may be equivalent to endophytic activity (Section 10).

Fungus colonisation on the surface of a Scaevola crassifolia root.

Stylidium schoenoides Triggerplant (Stylidiaceae). Plants in this genus normally have VAM roots.

3. Orchids

Orchid mycorrhizas were found in all Australian terrestrial orchids examined. These fungi are used to propagate Australian orchids (Batty et al. 2002). Orchid mycorrhizas are briefly described in Section 1.

Orchid mycorrhiza of Pterostylis sanguinea stem with coils (arrows) hyphae entering rhizome through branched trichomes.	High magnification of hyphal coils in root cells of Thelymitra crinita. Each hyphal coil (pelotion) is approximately 150 µm long.

West Australian Terrestrial Orchids

Paracaleana nigrita Flying Duck Orchid stem association	Pterostylis sanguinea Greenhood Orchid stem association	Pterostylis barbata Bird Orchid stem association
Cyanicula sericea Silky Blue Orchid stem association	Prasophyllum elatum Leek Orchid root association	Thelymitra crinita Sun Orchid root association

4. Ericoid Mycorrhizas

Reed (1987) examined 22 genera and Hutton et al. (1994) examined 14 species. All had ericoid associations. The structure of these associations is very similar to those described from the Northern Hemisphere (Smith & Read 1997, Massicotte et al. 2005b).

Leucopogon verticillatus Tassel Flower

Andersonia caerulea Blue Andersonia

Conostephium pendulum Pearl Flower

Ericoid mycorrhiza in a hair roots and a coarser of Leucopogon verticillatus.	closer view of mycorrhiza in a hair root of L. verticillatus.

5. Thysanotus Associations

In roots of Thysanotus species fungal hyphae are restricted to subepidermal cavities in an unusual form of mycorrhizal association first observed by McGee (1988). He found that these associations enhanced the growth of Southern Australian species of Thysanotus. The fungi colonising Thysanotus roots have not been identified.

Thysanotus triandrus Fringe Lily	Cross section of a Thysanotus root with hyphae in sub-epidermal cavity (arrows).

6. Conclusions

1. As is the case in other regions of the World (Brundrett 1991), VAM is the most prevalent association in Australian plant communities.
2. Trees and plants with ECM associations are dominant in many habitats, and nonmycorrhizal (NM) species such as members of the Proteaceae are also relatively common (Lamont 1982, Brundrett & Abbott 1991, Lambers et al. 1996).
3. Plants in the families Orchidaceae and Ericaceae have consistent mycorrhizal associations different from those of other plants.
4. Most Australian NM plants have root systems with extensive root hairs and/or root clusters (dense aggregations of lateral roots). Plants with cluster roots include most members of the Proteaceae and Kennedia, Daviesia and Viminaria in the Fabaceae.
5. Monocotyledons in the Commelinaceae, Cyperaceae, Dasypogonaceae, Juncaceae, Haemodoraceae and Restionaceae have lost mycorrhizas in favour of root clusters and/or sand-binding roots.
6. Roots of families such as the Proteaceae, Restionaceae and Cyperaceae are usually remain free of fungi, but apparently can occasionally contain VAM.
7. Parasitic and carnivorous plants generally also have NM roots.
8. Australian plants with ECM, usually have dual ECM/VAM associations. These include many important trees and shrubs in the families Fabaceae and Myrtaceae. However, there are also many plants in these families that only have VAM.
9. Some plants in the Asteraceae, Goodeniaceae and Lobeliaceae with VAM are reported to also have associations which resemble ECM, but these lack a key defining feature (the Hartig net).
10. The greatest variety of mycorrhizal strategies occurs within the tribe Mirbelieae in the family Papilionaceae, which includes (i) plants with VAM only, (ii) plants with dual ECM/VAM and (iii) NM plants with cluster roots and (iv) plants with VAM and cluster roots.
11. There are even differences in mycorrhizal strategies within some genera. For example, Kennedia has species with VAM (K. prostrata, K. rubicunda) or with NM cluster roots (K. coccinea).
12. The complexity of mycorrhizal associations in families much as the Myrtaceae and Fabaceae makes it necessary to sample roots to determine mycorrhizal association types.

The complexities of the root biology of Australian plants are a fascinating topic for study. Evidence that nutrient uptake strategies appear to be evolving more rapidly here, than elsewhere is provided by differences in the mycorrhizal status of plants within families such as the Fabaceae and Myrtaceae, or even within some genera. However, the majority of families have consistent mycorrhizal associations. The versatility of roots of many important Australian trees and shrubs may be an adaptation to survival in harsh or fluctuating environmental conditions. It would seem that no nutrient uptake strategy is clearly superior to the others, as plants with different root types coexist in most plant communities. The functional diversity of the roots of Australian plants may be important to maximise nutrient cycling and conservation and may help to explain the very high plant diversity that occurs in extremely infertile soils.

D. Help Provide Information

This page will be updated to include new information. Please provide any additional relevant information you have or know about. Include complete citation information and your name as you would like it to appear for acknowledgment purposes. It is also necessary to state the criteria you used to designate association types (i.e. Arbuscules for VAM, Hartig net for ECM).

• E-mail information to Mark Brundrett.

Version 2 © Mark Brundrett 2008